Male steroid hormones and female preference for male body odor
Markus J. Rantala, C.J. Peter Eriksson, Anssi Vainikka, Raine Kortet
Abstract
It has been suggested that human scent works as a signal in mate selection, but the empirical evidence is scarce. Here, we examined whether women’s olfactory preferences for a man’s scent could be correlated with his testosterone, estradiol, or cortisol concentrations, and whether these preferences change along with the menstrual cycle. In line with previous studies, women in their most fertile period gave the highest attractiveness ratings to all men. However, the intensity ratings by women at different menstrual phases did not significantly differ statistically. Interestingly, we found that cortisol concentration in saliva correlated positively with the attractiveness but not with the intensity ratings of male T-shirt odor by all women’s groups. However, neither testosterone nor estradiol was significantly associated with the ratings of attractiveness or intensity. Thus, our study suggests that there could be a novel mechanism for odor-based selection in humans.
Maybe it’s because many good providers are stressed. They can do lots of stuff and give us a good life, and then we can love them and ease their burden (reducing their cortisol.)
4. Discussion
Interestingly, we found a positive correlation between salivary cortisol level and attractiveness ratings of men’s T-shirts by all women’s groups, but no significant evidence that the primary androgen, testosterone, could be associated with the odor of a man. Thus, in the light of our study it seems that either cortisol or some other hormone connected to the cortisol metabolism may shape the attractiveness of body odors in humans. For example, several androgens and cortisol are metabolised from the same precursor, pregnenolone (e.g., Nussey & Whitehead, 2001). Further studies are needed to confirm our result.
Recently, it has been found that several women’s preferences—males with a masculine face (Johnston, Hagel, Franklin, Fink, & Grammer, 2001; Penton-Voak & Perret, 2000; Penton-Voak et al., 1999), body odor of symmetric men (Gangestad & Thornhill, 1998), body odor of men with immunocompetent genotypes (Thornhill et al., 2003), and masculine behavioral displays (Gangestad, Simpson, Cousins, Garver-Apgar, & Christensen, 2004)— change across the menstrual cycle. However, we did not find evidence that the preference for high saliva cortisol levels changed significantly during the cycle, but all groups of women seemed to prefer males with high cortisol levels.
Why did women prefer the odors of men who had high cortisol level? Physiologically, it is possible that cortisol has either a direct or indirect link via adrenalin to the activity of the apocrine sweat glands which might have effects on the attractiveness of body odor (Ikai &Hasegawa, 1971; Rothardt & Beier, 2001). Further, metabolism of sweat by commensal microbes might make the individual’s odor more pleasant depending on sweating rate (see, for example, Austin & Ellis, 2003; Stoddart, 1991). Evolutionarily, immunosuppressive hormones are said to be essential for the production of good-quality sperm since haploid sperm might be susceptible to autoimmune attacks (Skau & Folstad, 2004). Thus, by preferring the scent of cortisol, women might be able to gain both good sperm and good immune genes for their offspring since only genetically immunocompetent males would be able to maintain high cortisol levels(Folstad & Karter, 1992). Unfortunately, we were not able to measure the amount of perspiration in this study. However, it is important to note that cortisol concentration did not correlate with the intensity ratings of T shirts, suggesting that cortisol affects the scent qualitatively, not quantitatively. Also, it is possible that some of the studied men might have experienced stress, which could affect their cortisol values. Although the experimental conditions were the same for all participants and were planned to be as pleasant as possible.
Women’s self-reported sexual desire has been reported to peak at the fertile phase of the menstrual cycle (see, for example, Regan, 1996), when women also exhibit an increased olfactory sensitivity (Doty, 1981; Kohl & Francoeur, 1995). Thus, as indicated in our study, it is likely that the average attractiveness rating of male scent by women not using contraceptive pills changes across the cycle, showing the highest attractiveness at the fertile phase of the cycle. However, the average intensity ratings of women did not change during the cycle among women not using contraceptive pills. The use of contraceptive pills affected the average intensity ratings when analysed as overall difference between contraceptive users and nonusers, suggesting that pills might, in some circumstances, increase the olfactory sensitivity. In this study, we did not collect menstrual cycle diaries or measure salivary estradiol and progesterone. Thus, these results may suffer from some uncontrolled variation in the exact timing of ovulation and fertility groups. To minimise these problems, we excluded all women who had a cycle length either shorter than 21 days or longer than 37 days. Our study suggests that women’s olfactory sensitivity to a man’s scent changes during the menstrual cycle, being highest before and during the fertile window of the cycle. Moreover, our results propose that cortisol or its interplay with other causal factors affecting male scent may shape the olfactory cues of mate selection in humans. Further studies are needed to explore the generality of this result in other taxa and the evolutionary significance of this preference to women’s fitness."
Jasmin and Futurist,
the following is a study, this time in wild chimpanzees (close relatives of us humans ), whose results indicate that “male dominance rank is positively correlated with urinary cortisol excretion in a stable dominance hierarchy.” So more dominance in the hierarchy = more cortisol. According to the authors, “these findings suggest that dominant chimpanzees experience significant metabolic costs that must be set against the presumed reproductive benefits of high rank.”
Abstract Field studies of endocrine function in a range of social mammals suggest that high dominance rank is commonly associated with elevated glucocorticoid production. This is puzzling, because in stable dominance hierarchies, high status is normally associated with social control and predictability, key predictors of low psychological stress. One solution to this problem may be that high rank is commonly associated with elevated energetic expenditure, leading to increased metabolic stress and glucocorticoid secretion. We conducted behavioural observations and non-invasive hormone sampling of male chimpanzees in Kibale National Park, Uganda, to examine the relationship between cortisol, dominance and stress in wild chimpanzees. Results indicate that male dominance rank positively correlated with urinary cortisol excretion in a stable dominance hierarchy. Cortisol excretion also correlated positively with rates of male aggression. We suggest that the relationship between cortisol and rank in chimpanzees may be driven by energetic factors rather than psychosocial ones. This interpretation is supported by the observation that urinary cortisol levels correlated negatively with food availability. These findings suggest that dominant chimpanzees experience significant metabolic costs that must be set against the presumed reproductive benefits of high rank. Metabolic stress may mediate the relationship between rank and cortisol in other social mammals.
Keywords Chimpanzees - Cortisol - Stress - Dominance - Aggression
Communicated by L. Sterck
Could Cortisol and/or its metabolites be ‘pheromonally active’?
the following is a study which seems to pick out some ‘cortisol metabolites’ on human skin; could the presence of one or more of these substances be responsible for the result in the above study?
ABSTRACT: Cortisol-4- l e ] was found actively metabolized by slices of human skin. By paper chromatography, isotopic dilution, and the preparation of acetates, the following metabolites were identified: cortisone, Ad-pregnene-1 1&17cr,2Op,21 -tetraol-3-one (Reichstein’s substances E), A4-pregnene-1 lp-17cu,20a,21-tetraol-3-one (epi-E), A4-pregnene-17a-2OP,21-triol-3,1l-dione(U), andA4-pregnene-17a,20a,21-triol-3,11-dione (epi-U), allodihydrocortisol, and allotetrahydrocortisol. The latter two steroids were found only of cortis014-~4C] with foreskin and not other anatomical sites. The two general metabolism of cortisol in human skin appear oxidation of the llp-01 and reduction of saturation of the Ad-double bond and
3-one appear limited to the foreskin.
some probably correct chemical names of the above mentioned ‘cortisol metabolites’ and websites they may be available from
I noticed my SO seems to “miss me badly” when she’s into the 2nd/3rd day of her period (actually, more sexually aroused). This phenomena was also reported in the other forum & concurred by some.
Although this is not the fertile days of her cycle, would TEnone give a good response? What would be a better choice if not TEnone? Anyone tried this? Thanks.
Cortisol does not just equal stress. For an example read my second post above taken from the discussion in the article: “Evolutionarily, immunosuppressive hormones [like Cortisol] are said to be essential for the production of good-quality sperm since haploid sperm might be susceptible to autoimmune attacks. Thus, by preferring the scent of cortisol, women might be able to gain both good sperm and good immune genes for their offspring since only genetically immunocompetent males would be able to maintain high cortisol levels.”
Also Cortisol isn’t all bad. Nothing in the human body is all good or all bad. For example there are diseases (like adrenal burnout perhaps) where LOW Cortisol is the culprit.
Based on the above study, cortisol and the skin metabolites (at least those I have named) should be investigated as putative pheromones.
I’ll be producing a truckload of cortisol this month due to my schedule and diet, AND I’ll experimenting with a Testosterone booster. Keep this thread alive, because I might have some solid material to back up this cortisol idea. (See my “Uncool…” thread if you want to track my results through the month.)
Oh, and I’m taking a low dose (25mg) of DHEA at the same time, because compnents of Alpha Male control “…the conversion of DHEA and other naturally occurring androgens into Testosterone.” AND I got the DHEA bottle for $3, so why not? I’ve been against using DHEA in the past, but a dose that low is harmless.
That’s like asking “How do I know A314 is working?” Honestly - I don’t / won’t know for sure. I’m not getting any blood tests done because it would cut into my budget.
No, it’s not like asking about A314. There is nothing to measure. It’s subjective. If you were trying to raise your testosterone levels, which are very easy to do, you should get a baseline, then a follow up.
I have zero disposable income this month - I’m budgeted down to the penny - and I start tomorrow, when I get my fed-ex package for the rest of my supplements
.
), whose results indicate that “male dominance rank is positively correlated with urinary cortisol excretion in a stable dominance hierarchy.” So more dominance in the hierarchy = more cortisol. According to the authors, “these findings suggest that dominant chimpanzees experience significant metabolic costs that must be set against the presumed reproductive benefits of high rank.”